Contribution Of Emile Durkheim Study Of Society Sociology Essay

Contribution Of Emile Durkheim Study Of Society Sociology Essay Durkheim (1858-1917) who devoted himself to the scientific study of sociology is widely regarded as a pioneer in French sociology. It is known that Emile Durkheim inherits some of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencers ideas and developed a systematic sociology both in theory and methodology (Moà ±ivas, 2007, p. 18). However, some of his works have been questioned and criticized. In order to examine the contribution of Emile Durkheim to the scientific study of society critically, one should consider Durkheims groundbreaking works including: The Division of Labour (1893), Rules of Sociological Method (1895), and Suicide (1897), all of which reflect a popular topic about individualism and a new social regulation in modern industrial society (Barnes, 1920, p. 4).This essay will first describe Durkheims notion of social facts which run through as a principle concept in his sociology. It will discuss its characteristics as well as importance, and then introduce Durkheims methodological appro ach to study social facts. The essay will move on to explore Durkheims contribution to the social sciences through the use of examples which include his study of The Division of Labour and Suicide. In addition, limitations will be mentioned when examine his works. This essay will argue that in spite of some criticism both in theories and methods. The overall contribution of Durkheim remains one of the peaks in modern sociology. Second, social facts are external from individuals. Durkheim rejects Comtes opinion to unify social science with other scientific disciplines and try to treat it independently. He argues that social facts are different from those assumptions in peoples mind and regular acting such as drinking or sleeping in everyday life. As a result, one could distinguish a kind of conduct and thought out of biology and psychology and classifies it into the particular category of sociology (Allan, 2005, p. 102). Casteel (2009) considered this as an important issue to Durkheim that complete Comtes project and establish sociology as its own academic discipline. Besides, such externality also reflects on continuum and social facts are kind of objectivities that prior to individuals, but individuals are born into them and enact them, thus social facts could be observed and measured by statistics (McCormack, 1996). However, Lukes (1973, p. 11) argues that Durkheims concepts about externality is ambiguous . For example, collective consciousnesses, which defined as a kind of similar and general perspectives and emotions such as religion that could react on people in an indirectly way that without crystallized forms. As is regarded as a social fact, it should be outside and independent from individuals. Nevertheless, Durkheim explained that collective consciousnesses are derived from most individuals in a society as a group mind thus failed to support his notion about externality. Thirdly, social facts have external coercions on individuals. It limits the choices of individuals and if individuals try to go against them, they may likely to get resistance by certain external constraint power such as public laws. Additionally, those coercive powers are not only administered by social organization but also potential moral awareness which called social currents (Harrington, 2005, p.28). However, Durkheim failed to distinguish the power of coercion and prestige. For examples, the power of public law which administered by institutions composed on individuals not only by means of the acceptance of legitimacy, but also fear of sanction. On the other hand, beliefs may probably constraint individuals through prestige or moral obligation (Lukes 1973, p. 13). Moreover, it is argued that Durkheim neglects the reaction from individuals on social facts. Some critics who challenged Durkheims theory believe that individuals could have the capability of creation on social facts (Casteel, 2009). In his book The rules of Sociological Method, Durkheim highlights the importance of study social facts as well as the methods to study them. He accepts Comtes idea that every social phenomenon should be studied as a thing within the context of society. Due to its objectivity, one could use positive approaches to observe, experiment, compare and analysis social phenomenon in favour of finding the sociological laws, demonstrating the normal and pathological as well as speculating the future development of society (Craib, 1997, p.30). In Durkheim methodology of social science, he stresses the importance of looking at society scientifically and discovering the formations (collective consciousnesses etc.) as well as functions (social cohesion, change etc.) of social facts and how they have effects on individuals within the scope of society (Brown, 2008). Emirbayer (1996) point out that Durkheim has rejected metaphysics and uses statistical methodology and comparative strategy (p. 264) to explore the correlations and casual relations among a number of systematic and connected variables by collecting and interpreting evidences. Durkheim has exercised his theory and methodology in two of his major works: The Division of Labor and Suicide. In The Division of Labor, Durkheim argues that there have other approaches to integrate the society beside religion. One of them is the division of labor, which he regarded as a powerful evidence of how social bonds transit from collective consciousness to division of labor (Brown, 2008). Durkheim highlights the functional interdependence of different individuals or units of the society which could be explained by the term of solidarity (Allan, 2005, p. 122). In the division of labor, he illustrates two kinds of solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. He compared primitive society and modern society using the organismic approach to explore how individuals maintain solidarity. In primitive society where there is low productivity, individuals are automatically bond together by the collective consciousnesses, an external uniform beliefs imposed on individuals . On the other hand, organic solidarity exists in modern society. Spencer enormously influenced Durkheims Division of Labor. Spencer believes that society was stimulated by the fundamental force of population growth, which changes the way of society to distribute production and wealth (Jones, 205, p. 345). Durkheim developed his evolutionary and organism doctrine. According to Barnes (1920, p. 240), for Durkheim, social evolution is characterized by a decrease in this repressive and mechanical type of social cohesion or solidarity and by a corresponding increase in the development of individual consciousness and personality. That is, with a dense growth of population as the determinant cause of raised intensive division of labor, individuals are more interdependent on diverse contribution of others to perform a cooperatively function instead of the dominance of collective conscience (Sirianni, 1984). Brown (2008) points out that individualism becomes more important than the collecti ve to maintain social solidarity and represents the characteristic of modern society. It is apparently Durkheim provide a sociological platform which benefits to interpret social process. However limitations could probably exist in his theories as well as methodology such as the cause of the division of labor and the interpretation of its effects. Tarde (citied in Lukes, 1973, p. 304) suggests that Durkheims opinion on the division of labor only concern the social internal problem without international relationship. Meanwhile, the division of labor could also result from variety of creation instead of population density. Moreover, Merton (1994, p. 22) argues that in Durkheims presentation of social evolution, he diminished the effectiveness of civil law in primitive society and common interest in the modern society in order to give prominence to main power of cohesion : collective consciousnesses and the division of labour, in mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity respectively. As a result, a precise relationship between solidarity and law may not be obtained. Finally, in the conclusion of his work, he personally regard the society as pathological due to the lack of social regulations that do no match the level of the division of labor and excessive individualism during transition, it is likely to push the society into anomie as well as increase the suicide rate (Mutchnick et al., 2009). In another significant book Suicide Durkheim explained a popular moral phenomenon in the 19th society. Suicide can be defined as every case of death which results directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act, accomplished by the victim himself which he knows must produce this result (Lukes, 1973, p. 202). Durkheim first considered suicide is a private action but also as a matter of a social fact that exists external to each individual in the society. Thus, the statistics of suicide could reflect diverse outside forces through which one could access to the origins of the weakness of the society as well as solution to those problem. Then he theoretically categorizes different but general social causes of individual suicide and draws its effect by deduction approach. There are four forms of suicide respect to two levels of imbalanced social forces: integration and moral rule (Thompson, 1982). Firstly, it is regarded that egoistic suicide is the consequence of excessive individ ualism. In a deteriorated society, individual who integrate less with others and act on their own interest is likely to act egoistic suicide. By contrast, altruistic suicide is result from excessive conformity, Durkheim stats that suicide becomes ones obligation. It often happens in modern societies among civilized people who sacrifice themselves in order to save others such as military (Durkheim, 1979). The other two kinds of suicide are classified into the group of moral regulation. Durkheim again divided the situation that people tends to conduct anomic suicide into four aspects of crisis: decline in the capability of social organizations to instruct peoples lives; rapid social transformation; wealth no longer satisfied people and unbalanced marriage. Finally, Durkheim view fatalistic as the product of rigid but strong moral norm which often committed by slaves (Jones, 1986). It is suggested that if examine Durkheims work critically, one may noticed flaws in his notion of Suicide (Gane, 1988, p. 152). First, one may question whether such phenomenon causes by external force such as society but shared awareness from individuals. However, Durkheim defends it by the term of conscience collective which is also a kind of a social fact and points out the strength of linking morality to discover social laws (Craib, 1997, p. 32). Secondly, Lukes (1973, p. 202-206) argues that his classification of suicide form has limited the causes and types. Moreover, Durkheim concerned the causes of suicide only with social facts and rejected the relationship between suicide and personality in terms of psychology, physic as well as alcoholism. Additionally, the subject of suicide is more like to exist in disordered societies thus lead to an unbalanced research which prone to the theory of pathology. As a result, the contribution of suicide to sociology is actually restricted. However, Thompson (1982) states that regardless the shortages, Durkheim work of suicide is an essential contribution because they effectively combine sociological theory with empiricism to explain social phenomenon. Durkheim suggests that the study of suicide could reveal the connection between social members which closely go with the original subject of social bond in sociology. Moreover, by examining suicide could help one to discover the law of sociology and thus give a direction of the development of society (Lukes, 1973, p. 193). In the research, he related series of common characteristics of the society as social facts to suicide rate statistics and draw a general conclusion that particular social environment and current could lead to a growth of suicide rate. For example, insufficient economy growth and social mode changes generate a remarkable suicide rate in the 19th century of European. Aimed at solving this problem, Durkheim also proposed to strengthen the backbone of econ omy and support individuals with the sense of belonging (Lukes, 1973, p. 220). In conclusion, this essay explored Durkheims main works in sociology. As one of the founder of professional sociology, Durkheim identified social facts thus built the dimension as well as the skeleton of sociology. Based on previous work, he formulates a systematic methodology to discover the social laws by observing and comparing the relationships between different variables. Durkheim further applied his methodology and theory into his work of The Division of Labor and Suicide. He discovered the procedure by which individuals socially integrate into society, and provide different types to explain the relationship between people and society. Although there are certain indistinct interpretation in terms of concepts and correlations, Durkheims work is considered to have significant to the scientific study of society. Word count: 2105

Nature and Popular Culture :: essays research papers

As artwork has become more accepted in popular culture, we begin to see more and more creative artists portray their opinions of what is really going on in today’s society. By the rights granted to us based on the foundation of this country, there is the right to release opinions of how the world is viewed. A major part of this is what goes on in the atmosphere of which we live. The environment plays a vital role in the daily lives of citizens of the world and what happens to our environment in the future will continue to have lasting affects on future generations to come. Through artwork, the advertising industry has been releasing more frequent campaigns of what is going on in the world we live with an aspect of how nature is surviving as people are as well. There is an ongoing relationship that we rely on nature just as nature sometimes would seem to fit into our lives more than we would begin to realize. There are usual two sides to every story and it seems that either on e is of nature or one is against nature. This is evident in some aspects of television, movies, advertising, and music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I have found four particular artifacts that exemplify how modern art is of nature. I believe that a portion of this idea is attracting business. In this age of internet commerce and new technology being released more frequently than in the past, there might be a small fear that people will forget about the importance of nature and rely too heavily on technology. Due to this there has been an increase in the amount of advertisements that use themes of nature to market their products and services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a recent advertisement campaign of Nike athletic footwear, there is a portrayal of gazelles sprinting through an empty African field. Through the course of the run the gazelles change into men and women sprinting in a marathon race with Nike shoes on their feet. Nike is trying to sell their running shoes by stating that if you buy their product you will have natural speed like these swift animals.

Kids and Mobile Phones

Kids and Cellphones Cell phone users are growing every minute in every part of the globe and the user is getting younger. The cell phone and service provider advertisements are increasingly being targeted at the children, teens and young adults. European governments have cautioned parents about the health hazards children face with the use of cellphones before they are16. But, countries like Britain, already have half their children using mobile phones and the number of users between ages 4-9 is fast increasing.Cell phone manufacturers are now targeting this age with friendly colourful mobiles with only 4 buttons and of upto 20 phone numbers to be stored. Parental controls and GPS locator are added features. The very reason you are going through this hub is probably because you have to make an important decision, whether your child is ready for a cell phone of her own. Well, let us weigh the pros and cons of giving her one. At what age are kids ready for their own cell phone? At what age do they really ‘need' one? Every child, whatever the age-toddler, tweens, teens, today wants a mobile phone.Tweens and teens see the use of a cell phone as becoming independent and flaunting it as a status symbol, in addition to keeping up with the peers. A toddler or a preschooler just wants to imitate what adults do. But, it is more the parent who seems to want to know what the child is upto and also keep up or one step above their friends. So, how useful is it going to be? Schools have banned the use of mobile phones as it is a constant source of distraction among students, whatever the age. Some teenagers have even cheated on tests using cell phones.Parents arguments that they need to know what their child is upto, does not hold water because the student is not permitted to use it during school hours. So, having one does not serve any purpose. If your school allows the student to bring a cell phone but makes it mandatory that it be put on silent mode during school hou rs, then probably you could know whether your child reached her swimming or music lesson after school. If a regular transport has been arranged for your child, it hardly matters whether he has a cell phone or not.Yes, in times of emergency, such as school leaving early or a basketball session finishing late, it would help you as parent make necessary alternate arrangements for transport. It is this sense of security, safety and convenience, most parents give in to the plea of a mobile phone for their child. A phone with GPS is seen as a must for some parents who want to know their child's whereabouts at any given time. Of course, the child will argue that he would like a mobile phone because his friends have it, he can keep in touch with them and collect missed homework.Some parents see the need to give their little one a mobile phone if she is allergic to something or asthmatic, or going on a school trip. The Cons of Giving Your Child A Mobile Phone The safe, convenient way to cons tantly be in one-button touch communication gives a parent the sense of security concerning the child. But, if the child is under 12, he should be under the supervision of an adult at all times anyway. And in most cases, the child would know how to use a regular phone or the cell phone of the one who is supervising.Researchers have often cited cell phone usage as being hazardous to health, more so in the case of children. The ongoing research suggests that the more one spends time on one's mobile phone, electromagnetic radiation emitted can be the cause of Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, cancers ,etc. The developing tissues of a young child can be affected, but the more recent studies show that there is no connection between radiation from cell phones and brain cancer. Well, the debate is still on, and it is certainly beneficial to limit the use of a mobile phone, whatever the age.Children have been seen to be impulsive if they are allowed the use of a cell phone, according to a recent study. Because of the texting on cell phones, they learn to quickly retort/reply. These children are seen to be faster in IQ tests, but very inaccurate, since messaging between peers makes them quicker-on-the-draw, but without time for ample thought. SMSing friends takes up most of their time and most teens and tweens are losing sleep texting away into the night. Spellings take a back seat as well, since they learn to use shortcuts in messaging away to friends.Increased independence gives children the courage to skip more time from family life. They also learn to be totally dependent on a mobile phone, which comes to light when the said phone is either lost or confiscated. Depending on whether the phone is internet enabled, you will be exposing your child to unwanted MMS , youtube videos, emails from spammers, or simply calls from unwanted tricksters. Which brings us to the subject of MONEY Cell phones can be expensive. Your child may not agree to what you show her- a basic c ell phone to make and receive calls.You will have to talk to her first in order to know what exactly she wants and why she â€Å"needs† it, before you even agree to purchase one. Talking to her friend's moms or the teacher can give you a benchmark. A basic plan for your child's cell phone can be a good thing until you are hit by extra charges for those additional â€Å"awesome† ringtones, textmessaging, internet usage,and of course additional talktime. So, it certainly pays to have a good talk with your child before you settle on buying a mobile phone on the do's and don'ts as well.Some kids get into the habit of losing their cell phones often when they know their parents will replace them without a whimper, simply because the latest model has arrived in the market. Most parents realize that the cell phone is mainly used for SMSing, downloading games, ringtones,and music videos which can be an additional burden on the family budget. So, are you upto it? And of course, as time progresses, they are busy messaging friends or speaking to them, even during family outings. I have seen mothers admonishing their teenagers busy on heir phones in restaurants and in shopping malls and worse, they turn a blind eye and a deaf ear to their surrounding which can be detrimental, particularly if they are driving or about to be accosted by strangers. Many accidents happen and unwanted injuries take place because a teenager ignores warning signals as he is busy talking on the phone. Thieves love to snatch the trendiest of cell phones even as you speak, so beware of flaunting it in public. Cell phone etiquette is important, an should be taught to your child as well.Excusing oneself to take a call, ignoring a prankster and reporting him to the parent or teacher, and never be party to pranks themselves. What is good and what's not is to be dealt with by the concerned parent, before it gets out of hand. Cell phones also put your child at risk for getting in trouble for : sexting – sending or receiving nude pictures prank calls – which can get your child in trouble if someone starts pranking other people from your child's phone LG Optimus Elite Prepaid Android Phone (Virgin Mobile) Amazon Price: $115. 00List Price: $129. 99 Samsung Galaxy S III 4G Android Phone, Blue 16GB (Sprint) Amazon Price: $699. 99 Brand New Sidekick LX 2009 SHARP PV300 GSM Unlocked – T-Mobile (Carbon Black). This phone does not have internet capabilities. Amazon Price: $54. 99 List Price: $149. 99 Samsung Galaxy S III 4G Android Phone, Blue 16GB (Verizon Wireless) Amazon Price: $699. 99 HTC One V Prepaid Android Phone (Virgin Mobile) Amazon Price: Too low to display List Price: $199. 99 Samsung Galaxy S III 4G Android Phone, White 16GB (Verizon Wireless) Amazon Price: $699. 99NEW Version Ultra-thin Quad-band Watch Mobile Phone FM/MP3/MP4 2M Camera Amazon Price: $99. 00 Best Course Of Action Each parent has their own views and the schools their children go to, play a big part in whether to give a cell phone to their child or not. A hand-me-down or a new handset is your decision as well, provided your child agrees. You could categorize it into one or a couple of the following. a necessity a luxury a fad an invasion Making the right choice of cell phone is necessary as well-whether you want a basic version to just make and receive calls or one that needs to be internet enabled and with Mp3.Once the decision is made, make sure you know that it is definitely going to cut into your monthly expenses,whether you have a talk with your child or not. So, is your child ready to take on this responsibility and sticking to a basic plan. Or will you need to pay extra for all the additional downloads and textmessaging. Some points worth considering: Prepaid monthly plans offer the ability to control exactly how much your child can spend in any given month. Some handsets offer unique parental controls to monitor and restrict activity which is a good thing.Some phones also let you limit who can call the phone and who your child can call. Consider giving the phone only when she is in the shopping mall or on a school trip. Discuss the do's and don'ts of important issues such as cyberbullying, pranksters, cell phone ettiquette, the dangers of driving while on the cell phone, adhering to the cell phone rules of the school,etc. If you feel the need, get one that has a GPS locator, so you will know exactly where the child is at any given time. Stress that there is a responsibility attached which needs to be adhered to, strictly.

Solar Power essays

Solar Power essays It is the year 2032. The world we live in is not that much different from the one that we occupied no more than thirty years ago. We still have schools, we still have crime and we still share love as much as we do hate. Things are better off for the most part. One prominent difference is the disappearance of fossil fuels. They are so rare that the government has stockpiled all that is left and has gone in favor of a new source of energy. The source is solar power. After a little refinement and condensation of the materials involved, solar power is now our most prominent form of energy. But how did it happen? How did solar power prove to be the wave of the future? We live in a day and age where resources are slowly becoming fewer and more far between. With the combination of gas being burned up in our vehicles at an alarming rate and the United States relations with the Middle East not being as superb as they used to be we are being faced with a growing concern. What can we do about our energy shortage? The short term answer is the reserves that are loaded into Alaska. That's all fine and good for the time being but what about even a hundred years in the future? Can we depend on Alaska's supplies to be there? The smart answer is 'no'. So new sources of energy will be required. Nuclear fusion and fission are not viable answers yet and hydro power may not have what it takes. The changes of a water powered car are not that good. Solar power seems to be the answer. Solar powered cars are already being developed and a few million of so dollar in research money tossed in its development could be all that is needed to make it a reality. The development of photovoltaic conversion is what will make solar energy a viable source of power.1 Photovoltaic conversion is utilized in solar cells that can be easily installed in developmental cars. They harness energy directly from the sun and power the vehicle. There a ...

The physical and social environment for people with a disabi essays

The physical and social environment for people with a disabi essays Social, psychological and environment factors that affect the health of this client and should explain what health and social care provision has been designed to meet these needs. The factors influencing the health of the family and individuals. Therapeutic relationships and communication Aspects of health promotion within professional practice. Health promotion influences and is influenced by, not only the individual and the public, but politicians, pressure groups and you as a health care professional. It involves you in defining terms, goals and needs, as well as negotiating priorities with your patients/clients and other interested parties. This unit enables you to contribute to practical programmes within your own location by supporting you to: assess the challenges you face in establishing, running, and evaluating a health promotion programme analyse ways in which health behaviour may be influenced by health promotion campaigns analyse how agencies plan, launch, manage and evaluate health promotion campaigns discuss ways in which health priorities are chosen within our society All care journeys should reflect individual circumstances, but this is particularly important for people with physical disabilities, their families and those who care for them. people with disabilities and organisations such as the Disability Rights Commission will be fully involved in work to take forward this Plan as part of the new performance management framework we will monitor the training and awareness of NHS staff about existing good practice on disability issues we will improve physical access to health services, meetings and offices, including carrying out an accessibility audit of all NHS premises we will ensure that the NHS complies with the provisions of the Disability Discrimination Act. we will expect each NHS Board to dem...

Sustainability Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sustainability Marketing - Essay Example While economic pressures govern organisational strategies, their social responsibilities have also assumed increased significance. Widespread focus and attention on the issues of corporate social responsibilities and sustainable growth aspects have shaped new governance policies and practices. Such perspectives define the role organisations can play in creating responsible economic, environmental and social well-being of the communities they impact or serve. Several studies and observations made in this context have sparked debates on whether the marketing practices today are suited to an age characterised by environmental deterioration, scarcity of resources, expanding population and growing income disparities. Recent frameworks in this context are shaping innovative marketing practices that are founded on the principles of sustainability. A number of research studies have focused on explaining and exploring the concepts of sustainable marketing. This paper provides a deeper insight into the observations and conclusions provided by these studies and how it has contributed to the evolution of the concept of sustainable marketing practices. ... ion on Environment and Development’s report sustainable development is defined as the â€Å"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs† (World Bank Group website, 2001). Sustainable development relates to the ability of the organisations to balance the social, economic and environmental objectives. While economic objectives refer to industrial growth, individual needs, community requirements, and services social objectives refer to community empowerment, social mobility, cultural preservation, and equality. These needs and objectives should balance the environmental needs that encompass biodiversity, natural resources, ecosystem, pollution free air and water (Vagasi, 2004). Sustainable marketing remains an ambiguous term considering the paucity of extensive research in this area. Chen et al. (2009) define sustainable marketing as â€Å"the establishment, maintenance and enhancement of c ustomer relationships in order that the objectives of the parties involved are met without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their own objectives† (p88). The essence of this definition can be related to the principles of sustainable development that are being incorporated by organisations across all disciplines for improved social and ethical business practices. The whole concept of green marketing or sustainable marketing is based on the principle of respecting the environment and considering social benefits as a distinctive part of the goods or services being sold in the market (Kotler et al., 2010). The essence of sustainable marketing practices is visible in various stages of product development, modification of existing products, changes in the production process,

Postcolonial literature challenges the viability of the notion of a Essay

Postcolonial literature challenges the viability of the notion of a fixed identity. Consider how the colonial practice of othering is deconstructed in later novels - Essay Example Colonization has the strong impact on the history of the world that gave rise to the several revolutions, rebellions and different social changes in the society. Post-colonial literature has played a key role, in order to get through of the colonial system of the society. Post-colonial literature gives the sense of distinctive social identity and the otherness due the social culture and norms that are the main source of identification in the world since the early days of its creation. Identity is the element that gives the person realization of his importance in the society whereas Otherness is the distinctive factor that differentiates the person and his abilities in respect to others. Post-colonial literature came into existence as an opposition to the colonial system that ruled the society. It awakened the society to fight for their identity by giving them a sense of otherness in cultural and social aspects1. There are three books that have been discussed below in an account to this, these books belong to the colonial period, and they are also the perfect example of post-colonial literature. The book jasmine has depicted the struggle of the typical Punjabi girl of India and her journey of life in order to attain her distinctive identity in the society and American dream in term of social acceptance and self-contentment. Another book that has been discussed is the ‘Wide Sargasso Sea’, in which Antoinette’s has struggled for the attainment of her identity that has been having been perfectly illustrated in the book... The book gives a sense of otherness by being in a society where the number of other communities was dwelling and struggling to achieve their social identity. The third book that has been discussed in these papers is Black Mischief by Evelyn Waugh. In which the main character Seth can be observe having difficulty in